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Advanced Energy Design Guide for Multifamily Buildings: Achieving Zero Energy, 2022
- Advanced Energy Design Guidefor Multifamily Buildings [Go to Page]
- Contents
- Acknowledgments
- Abbreviations and Acronyms
- Foreword
- Sidebars [Go to Page]
- Grid Considerations for Zero Energy Buildings
- New Financial Models Driving Renewable Energy in Multifamily Projects
- Nonvisual Benefits of Daylighting and Electric Lighting
- Occupant Strategies for Energy Efficiency
- Electric Vehicle Charging Stations
- Chapter 1 - Introduction [Go to Page]
- GOALS OF THIS GUIDE
- ZERO ENERGY DEFINITION
- BENEFITS OF A ZERO ENERGY BUILDING [Go to Page]
- SOUND FISCAL MANAGEMENT
- OCCUPANT SATISFACTION
- ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP
- SCOPE
- DEVELOPING THE GUIDE
- HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- Case Study - Energy Modeling for the Multifamily AEDG
- Case Study - Batik Apartments
- Chapter 2 - Principles for Success [Go to Page]
- IMPROVING BUILDING PERFORMANCE
- MOVING TO ZERO ENERGY
- PRINCIPLES FOR SUCCESS [Go to Page]
- DEVELOP THE CULTURE AND MINDSET
- IDENTIFY A CHAMPION
- COLLABORATE AND ITERATE
- HIERARCHY OF DECISION MAKING
- ADAPTING TO FUTURE NEEDS [Go to Page]
- TECHNOLOGY
- RESILIENCY
- GRID ALIGNMENT
- RETROFIT READY
- OTHER FACTORS
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- Case Study - Beach Green Dunes II
- Chapter 3 - A Process for Success [Go to Page]
- SET THE GOAL [Go to Page]
- DETERMINE THE EUI TARGET
- IMPLEMENT THE EUI TARGET
- ESTABLISH THE FINANCIAL MODEL
- SELECT A PROJECT DELIVERY METHOD
- INCORPORATE THE GOAL IN THE PROJECT REQUIREMENTS
- HIRE THE PROJECT TEAM
- CONFIRM AND VERIFY [Go to Page]
- CONFIRM THE EUI
- CONFIRM ON-SITE RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL
- CALCULATE THE ENERGY BALANCE
- INCENTIVIZE THE TEAM TO IMPROVE
- COMMISSION THE BUILDING
- EDUCATE AND ENGAGE BUILDING OCCUPANTS
- VERIFY AND TRACK AFTER OCCUPANCY
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- Case Study - Betances Residence
- Chapter 4 - Leveraging Analysis to Drive Success [Go to Page]
- INTRODUCTION
- DESIGN-PHASE STRATEGIES [Go to Page]
- CONCEPT PHASE
- SCHEMATIC DESIGN PHASE
- DESIGN DEVELOPMENT PHASE
- CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS PHASE
- CONSTRUCTION PHASE
- OPERATIONS PHASE
- SPECIFIC ANALYSIS STRATEGIES [Go to Page]
- CLIMATE
- FORM AND SHAPE
- FENESTRATION
- SHADING
- DAYLIGHTING
- ENVELOPE
- INFILTRATION
- LIGHTING
- USER BEHAVIOR
- EQUIPMENT SCHEDULES AND LOADS
- HEATING AND COOLING LOADS
- MECHANICAL SYSTEMS COMPARISONS
- RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- Case Study - Stack House Apartments
- Chapter 5 - How-To Strategies [Go to Page]
- BUILDING AND SITE PLANNING [Go to Page]
- OVERVIEW
- SITE DESIGN STRATEGIES [Go to Page]
- BP1 Select Appropriate Building Sites
- BP2 Optimize Building Siting Combined with Landscaping and Site Features
- BP3 Infill Strategies
- BUILDING MASSING [Go to Page]
- BP4 Optimize Surface Area to Volume Ratio
- BP5 Programmatic Design Strategies
- BP6 Climate-Responsive Building Shapes
- BP7 Minimize and Shade Surfaces Receiving Direct Solar Radiation for Cooling
- BP8 Optimize Building for Natural Ventilation
- BUILDING ORIENTATION [Go to Page]
- BP9 Optimize Orientation
- PLANNING FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY [Go to Page]
- BP10 General Guidance for Renewable Energy Planning
- BP11 Roof Form
- BP12 Determine Required Roof Area for PV
- BP13 Maximize Available Roof Area
- BP14 Roof Durability and Longevity
- BP15 Roof Safety
- BP16 Maintain Solar Access
- B17 Alternatives to Roof-Mounted PV
- PARKING CONSIDERATIONS [Go to Page]
- BP18 Parking Garages
- REFERENCES
- ENVELOPE [Go to Page]
- OVERVIEW
- THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF OPAQUE ASSEMBLIES [Go to Page]
- EN1 Building Insulation General Guidance
- EN2 Insulation of Roofs
- EN3 Insulation of Mass Walls—Concrete and Masonry
- EN4 Insulation of Steel-Framed and Wood-Framed Walls
- EN5 Insulation of Below-Grade Walls
- EN6 Insulation of Mass Floors
- EN7 Insulation of Framed Floors
- EN8 Insulation of Slab-on-Grade Floors—Unheated and Heated
- EN9 Thermal Mass General Guidance
- EN10 Internal Thermal Mass
- EN11 External Thermal Mass
- EN12 Roofing General Guidance
- EN13 Cool Roofs and Warm Roofs
- EN14 Green Roofs
- THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF FENESTRATION AND DOORS [Go to Page]
- EN15 Building Fenestration General Guidance
- EN16 Window-to-Wall Ratio
- EN17 Select the Right Glazing
- EN18 Window U-Factor
- EN19 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
- EN20 Visible Transmittance
- EN21 Acoustics and Impact on Energy
- EN22 Spandrel Panels
- EN23 Operable Fenestration
- EN24 Glazed Entrance Doors
- AIR LEAKAGE CONTROL [Go to Page]
- EN25 Air Leakage Control General Guidance
- EN26 Air Leakage for Fenestration and Doors
- EN27 Whole-Building Air Sealing
- EN28 Establish a Maximum Air Leakage Rate Target
- THERMAL BRIDGING CONTROL [Go to Page]
- EN29 Thermal Bridging Control General Guidance
- EN30 Roof Penetrations
- EN31 Photovoltaic Supports
- EN32 Roof Curbs
- EN33 Roof Parapets
- EN34 Walls
- EN35 Thermally Broken Attachments
- EN36 Wall Openings
- EN37 Canopies and Sunshades
- EN38 Foundations and Floors
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- LIGHTING DESIGN [Go to Page]
- OVERVIEW
- GENERAL GUIDANCE [Go to Page]
- LD1 Daylighting Design Principles
- LD2 Electric Lighting Design Principles
- LIGHTING DESIGN PROJECT-PHASE TASKS [Go to Page]
- LD3 Predesign
- LD4 Schematic Design
- LD5 Design Development
- LD6 Construction Documents
- LD7 Construction Administration
- DESIGN STRATEGIES [Go to Page]
- LD8 Lighting Power Allowances
- LD9 Lighting Controls
- LD10 Light-Colored Interior Finishes in Common and Amenity Spaces
- LD11 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
- L12 LED Color Characteristics
- LD13 Connected Lighting
- RESIDENTIAL FLOOR SAMPLE LAYOUTS [Go to Page]
- LD14 Space-Specific General Guidance
- LD15 Typical Dwelling Unit
- LD16 Typical Residential Floor Corridor and Elevator Lobby and Stairway
- COMMON AREAS AND COMMERCIAL SPACE SAMPLE LAYOUTS [Go to Page]
- LD17 Main Lobby
- LD18 Office Spaces
- LD19 Retail Spaces
- LD20 Fitness Room
- LD21 Community Room
- LD22 Other Spaces
- LD23 Twenty-Four-Hour Lighting
- LD24 Parking Garage
- LD25 Exterior—Parking Lots and Drives
- LD26 Exterior—Walkways, Stairs, and Entries
- LD27 Exterior—Decorative Façade Lighting
- DAYLIGHTING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS [Go to Page]
- LD28 Building Footprint and Façade Orientation
- LD29 Space Programming
- LD30 Fenestration Function
- LD31 Daylight Redirection
- LD32 Shading and Glare Control
- LD33 Fenestration Details
- LIGHTING CONTROL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS [Go to Page]
- LD34 Separately Control Electric Light Distribution, Intensity, and Spectrum
- LD35 Use an Occupant-Engaged Control Strategy
- LD36 Photosensors
- LD37 Vacancy/Occupancy Sensors
- LD38 Use Information Available from the Lighting Control System
- LD39 Task Lighting (Plug-in Table Lamps)
- EXTERIOR LIGHTING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS [Go to Page]
- LD40 Lighting Zones
- LD41 Luminaire BUG Ratings
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- PLUG LOADS AND POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [Go to Page]
- OVERVIEW
- GENERAL GUIDANCE [Go to Page]
- PL1 Energy-Efficient Equipment
- PL2 Plug Load Controls
- RESIDENTIAL SPACES [Go to Page]
- PL3 Control Strategies
- PL4 Cooking Appliances
- PL5 Dishwashers
- PL6 Clothes Washers
- PL7 Heat Pump Dryers and Dryer Alternatives
- PL8 Refrigerators
- PL9 Fireplaces and Gas Logs
- PL10 Entertainment and Home Office Appliances
- COMMON AREAS AND COMMERCIAL SPACES [Go to Page]
- PL11 Control Strategies
- PL12 Office Equipment
- PL13 Audiovisual Equipment
- PL14 Security and Fire Systems
- BUILDING PROCESS LOADS [Go to Page]
- PL15 Elevators
- POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [Go to Page]
- PL16 Rightsizing Power Distribution Systems
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- DOMESTIC WATER HEATING [Go to Page]
- OVERVIEW
- SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS [Go to Page]
- WH1 System Options
- WH2 Water-Heating Sources
- WH3 Indoor Air-Source Electric Heat Pump Water Heater (Single Package)
- WH4 Outdoor Air-Source Electric Heat Pump Water Heater (Split System)
- WH5 Sewer Heat Recovery Heat Pump Electric Water Heater
- WH6 Condensing Gas-Fired Storage Water Heater
- WH7 Ground-Coupled Heat Pump Electric Water Heater
- WH8 System Type Selection Criteria
- DESIGN STRATEGIES [Go to Page]
- WH9 Cogeneration
- WH10 Reducing Overall Water Consumption
- WH11 Properly Sizing Equipment
- WH12 Equipment Efficiency
- WH13 Minimizing System Losses
- WH14 Distribution Piping Design
- WH15 Tank Storage Design
- WH16 Solar Hot-Water Systems
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- HVAC SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT [Go to Page]
- OVERVIEW [Go to Page]
- HV1 Human Comfort for Residential Buildings
- SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS [Go to Page]
- HV2 Systems for Building Common Spaces
- HV3 System Descriptions for Dwelling Units
- DEDICATED OUTDOOR AIR SYSTEM (DOAS) [Go to Page]
- HV4 System Overview—DOAS
- HV5 Sizing a DOAS for Dehumidification
- HV6 Air Delivery for Zone-Level Ventilation
- HV7 Discharge Air Temperature Control for DOAS
- HV8 Exhaust Air Energy Recovery Options for DOAS
- HV9 Advanced Sequence of Operation for DOAS
- HV10 Part-Load Dehumidification Control
- HV11 Ventilation Air Rate
- HV12 Exhaust Air Systems
- HV13 Kitchen Exhaust Hoods
- HV14 Energy Recovery Frost Control
- HV15 Indirect Evaporative Cooling
- SYSTEM A—AIR-SOURCE HEAT PUMP MULTISPLIT [Go to Page]
- HV16 Description—System A
- HV17 Sizing Indoor Units with Outdoor Units—System A
- HV18 Refrigerant Safety—System A
- HV19 Ambient Condition Considerations—System A
- SYSTEM B—WATER-SOURCE HEAT PUMP [Go to Page]
- HV20 Description—System B
- HV21 Types of Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems
- HV22 The Ground as an Annual Thermal Battery
- HV23 Hybrid Ground-Coupled Systems
- HV24 Water Piping and Pumping Strategies
- SYSTEM C—FOUR-PIPE HYDRONIC SYSTEM [Go to Page]
- HV25 Description—System C
- HV26 Chilled-Water Equipment—System C
- HV27 Hot-Water Equipment—System C
- HV28 Variable Primary Flow
- HV29 Two-Pipe versus Four-Pipe Considerations
- HV30 Ambient-Condition Considerations for Air-Source Chillers—System C
- HV31 Radiant Heating and Cooling Success Factors—System C
- GENERAL GUIDANCE FOR ALL SYSTEM TYPES [Go to Page]
- HV32 Fan Selection
- HV33 Energy-Efficient Electric Motors
- HV34 Rightsizing Equipment
- HV35 Decentralized Systems and Multifamily Issues
- HV36 Thermal Zoning
- HV37 System-Level Control Strategies
- HV38 HVAC Maintenance in Multifamily Buildings
- HV39 Commissioning Systems and Equipment
- HV40 Noise Control
- HV41 Natural Ventilation and Free Cooling
- THERMAL MASS [Go to Page]
- HV42 Thermal Mass Overview
- HV43 Passive versus Active Thermal Mass
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- RENEWABLE ENERGY [Go to Page]
- OVERVIEW [Go to Page]
- RE1 Common Terminology
- DESIGN STRATEGIES [Go to Page]
- RE2 System Design Considerations
- RE3 Sizing Renewables for the Zero Energy Goal
- RE4 Battery Energy Storage
- RE5 Mounting Options
- RE6 Interconnection Considerations
- RE7 Utility Considerations
- RE8 Utility Rates
- IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES [Go to Page]
- RE9 Purchasing Options
- RE10 Purchasing the System
- RE11 Negotiating Procurement
- RE12 Commissioning the System
- REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
- Case Study - St. Peter Residential Apartments
- Appendix A - Envelope Thermal Performance Factors [Go to Page]
- REFERENCES
- Appendix B - International Climatic Zone Definitions [Go to Page]
- DETERMINING CLIMATE ZONES [Go to Page]
- MARINE (C) ZONE DEFINITION
- DRY (B) ZONE DEFINITION
- HUMID (A) ZONE DEFINITION
- REFERENCES
- Tables [Go to Page]
- Table 3-1 Target Energy Use Intensity (EUI)
- Table 5-1 Summary of Strategies and Recommendations
- Table 5-2 (BP12) PV Percent Area of Gross Floor Area
- Table 5-3 (EN1) Envelope Construction Factors
- Table 5-4 (EN1) Insulation Applications by Envelope Component
- Table 5-5 (EN17) Fenestration and Door Assembly Criteria
- Table 5-6 (EN19) SHGC Multipliers for Permanent Projections
- Table 5-7 (LD8) Interior Lighting Power Densities (LPDs)
- Table 5-8 (LD9) Lighting Controls for Dwelling Units and Common Amenity Spaces
- Table 5-9 (LD9) Lighting Controls for Common Areas
- Table 5-10 (LD11) LED Specifications
- Table 5-11 (PL5) ENERGY STAR Criteria for Residential Dishwashers
- Table 5-12 (PL6) ENERGY STAR Criteria for Clothes Washers
- Table 5-13 (PL8) Recommended Energy Efficiency of Refrigerators
- Table 5-14 (WH8) Recommended Domestic Water-Heating System Types by Climate Zone
- Table 5-15 (WH10) Recommended Criteria for Faucets and Sprayers (EPA n.d.-b)
- Table 5-16 (WH11) Calculation Procedure for Estimating Domestic Water Heating Sizing (DOE n.d.)
- Table 5-17 (WH12) Gas Water Heater Performance
- Table 5-18 (WH12) Indoor Air-Source Water-to-Water Heat Pump Performance Requirements
- Table 5-19 (WH12) Outdoor Air-Source Water-to-Water Heat Pump Performance Requirements
- Table 5-20 (WH12) Water-to-Water Heat Pump Performance Requirements
- Table 5-21 (HV3) Recommended HVAC System Type by Climate Zone
- Table 5-22 (HV3) Minimum Efficiency Recommendations by System Type
- Table 5-23 (HV4) Recommendations for DOASs
- Table 5-24 (HV8) Recommended Energy Recovery Type by Climate Zone
- Table 5-25 (HV9) DOAS Unit Control Modes (ASHRAE 2017b)
- Table 5-26 (HV14) Example Frost Point for Energy (with 75% Total Effectiveness and 70°F Space Conditions)
- Table 5-27 (HV16) Recommendations for ASHP Multisplit
- Table 5-28 (HV20) Recommendations for Zone Terminal Systems with DOASs
- Table 5-29 (HV25) Recommendations for Hydronic Fan-Coils or Radiant Panels
- Table 5-30 (HV40) Recommended Background Sound Levels by Space Type (ASHRAE 2019h)
- Table A-1 Walls, Wood Framing, 16 in. on Center (O.C.)—Recommended Construction Factors
- Table A-2 Walls, Wood Framing, 24 in. on Center (O.C.)—Recommended Construction Factors
- Table A-3 Walls, Metal Framing, 16 in. on Center (O.C.)—Recommended Construction Factors
- Table A-4 Walls, Metal Framing, 24 in. on Center (O.C.)—Recommended Construction Factors
- Table A-5 Mass Walls Above Grade—Recommended Construction Factors
- Table A-6 Roofs—Recommended Construction Factors
- Table A-7 Non-Heated Slab-on-Grade—Recommended Construction Factors
- Table B-1 International Climatic Zone Definitions (ASHRAE 2021a)
- Figures [Go to Page]
- Figure 1-1 Typical Multifamily Floor Plans: (a) Residences and (b) Lobby
- Figure 1-2 EUI Comparison by Climate Zone: (a) Site and (b) Source
- Figure 1-3 Multifamily Prototype Building
- Figure 2-1 Integrated Design Process for a Zero Energy Building
- Figure 3-1 Where the Zero Energy Goal Gets Lost
- Figure 3-2 Climate Zone Map for U.S. States and Counties
- Figure 3-3 Building EUI by Number of Stories: (a) for Residential Floors Only and (b) for Total Building including Commercial First-Floor Spaces
- Figure 3-4 Energy Balance Diagram
- Figure 3-5 Exterior Doorway with Blower Door Installed
- Figure 3-6 Smartphone Energy Dashboard Display
- Figure 4-1 Energy End-Use Comparison: (a) Tampa, Florida, and (b) Rochester, Minnesota
- Figure 4-2 Climate-Based Impact of Ventilation Strategies on Hourly Annual Indoor Humidity Levels
- Figure 4-3 Solar Incidence Comparison
- Figure 5-1 (BP6) Letter Building Shapes
- Figure 5-2 (BP7) Fenestration Shading Examples
- Figure 5-3 (BP11) Solar Panel Layout Options
- Figure 5-4 (BP13) Roof-Mounted PV System
- Figure 5-5 (BP17) Roof Canopy PV System over Amenity Space
- Figure 5-6 (EN10) Internal Exposed Thermal Mass
- Figure 5-7 (EN18) High-Performance Thermally Broken Fiberglass Frames
- Figure 5-8 (EN30) Roof Drain Insulation
- Figure 5-9 (EN30) Plumbing Vent Insulation
- Figure 5-10 (EN33) Parapet Insulation
- Figure 5-11 (EN33) Through-Wall Scupper Insulation
- Figure 5-12 (EN34) Shelf Angle Installation at Floor Edge
- Figure 5-13 (EN34) Wall Cladding Attachment
- Figure 5-14 (EN34) Wall Masonry Attachment—Cladding Gravity Support
- Figure 5-15 (EN34) Wall Masonry Attachment—Cladding Lateral Support
- Figure 5-16 (EN34) Precast Exterior Wall with Interior Insulation
- Figure 5-17 (EN35) Wall to Balcony
- Figure 5-18 (EN35) Wall to Balcony—Wood-Frame Construction
- Figure 5-19 (EN35) Exterior Wall above Roof
- Figure 5-20 (EN36) Window System to Opaque Wall Connection: (a) Plan at Jamb and (b) Section at Sill
- Figure 5-21 (EN36) Window System to Opaque Wall Connection for Precast Wall Connection
- Figure 5-22 (EN36) Exterior Door Insulation Installation
- Figure 5-23 (EN38) Wall Transition with Insulation Continuous to Foundation
- Figure 5-24 (EN38) Wall Transition with Insulation
- Figure 5-25 (LD15) Typical Dwelling Unit: (a) Sample Design and (b) Illustrative Photograph
- Figure 5-26 (LD16) Typical Residential Floor Corridor, Elevator Lobby, and Stairway Sample Design
- Figure 5-27 (LD17) Main Lobby: (a) Sample Design and (b) Illustrative Photograph
- Figure 5-28 (LD18) Office Sample Design
- Figure 5-29 (LD20) Fitness Room Sample Design
- Figure 5-30 (LD21) Community Room: (a) Sample Design and (b) Shared Dining Area Illustrative Photograph
- Figure 5-31 (LD24) Parking Garage Sample Design
- Figure 5-32 (LD31) (a) Optical Louvers and (b) Microstructure Applied Film
- Figure 5-33 (PL1) Example EnergyGuide Label
- Figure 5-34 (PL4) Induction Cooktop Process
- Figure 5-35 (PL7) Heat Pump Dryer Technology Schematic
- Figure 5-36 (PL16) Typical Power Distribution
- Figure 5-37 (WH1) Central Domestic Hot-Water System Example (Prior to Insulation of Piping)
- Figure 5-38 (WH8) Impact of Domestic Water-Heating-System Type on Building EUI in Climate Zone 5A
- Figure 5-39 (WH14) Central Domestic Water-Heating Distribution System Layout with Multiple-Pass Heat Pump
- Figure 5-40 (WH14) Central Domestic Water-Heating-Distribution System Layout with Single-Pass Heat Pump
- Figure 5-41 (HV1) Comfort Zone Showing Impact of Increased Air Speed Across the Body
- Figure 5-42 (HV1) Comfort Zone Showing Impact of Outdoor Air Temperature
- Figure 5-43 (HV4) Example Exhaust Air Energy Recovery Configurations
- Figure 5-44 (HV6) Air Delivery for Zone-Level Ventilation
- Figure 5-45 (HV9) DOAS Unit Control Modes
- Figure 5-46 (HV12) Exhaust Air Measurement
- Figure 5-47 (HV16) System A—ASHP Multisplit
- Figure 5-48 (HV20) WSHP with Boiler/Closed-Circuit Cooler
- Figure 5-49 (HV20) WSHP with Exterior Ground-Coupled Heat Exchanger
- Figure 5-50 (HV25) Four-Pipe Hydronic System
- Figure 5-51 (HV40) Typical Noise Paths for Interior-Mounted HVAC Units
- Figure 5-52 (HV41) Outdoor Air Balance-Point Temperatures for Different Envelope Performance Levels
- Figure 5-53 Declining Costs of Solar Energy
- Figure 5-54 (RE1) Typical PV AC System Diagram
- Figure 5-55 (RE1) Typical PV Single-Line Diagram
- Figure 5-56 (RE4) Battery Storage (far left and middle left), Solar Energy Management Units (middle right), and Inverters (far right)
- Figure 5-57 (RE5) Ground-Mounted PV System
- Figure 5-58 (RE5) Canopy-Mounted PV System
- Figure 5-59 (RE5) Aerial View of Roof and Parking Canopy PV Systems
- Figure 5-60 (RE5) Off-Grid, Solar Powered, Solar Tracking Electric Vehicle Charger [Go to Page]
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